Trade-Offs and Synergies Among Ecosystem Services Influenced by Forest Type and Their Implications for Spatial...

The Upper Minjiang River Basin is a critical ecological barrier in the upper Yangtze River, where forest ecosystems play a vital role in carbon sequestration, water conservation, and soil retention. Given that different forest types exhibit significant variations in community structure, species composition, and ecological processes, their ecosystem service (ES) supplies and trade-off/synergy relationships are also expected to show distinct heterogeneity. However, systematic research on the trade-offs and synergies of ESs across different forest types remains limited, constraining the development of precision forest management and differentiated management strategies. To deal with this, we used the InVEST model and calculated five key services across the basin: carbon stock (CS), water yield (WY), soil conservation (SC), habitat quality (HQ), and forest stock volume (FSV). We then applied Spearman's correlation, root mean square deviation (RMSD), and the GeoDetector model to analyze trade-offs and uncover driving mechanisms. Finally, we used spatially constrained K-means clustering to map different management zones. The results indicate that the Upper Minjiang River Basin stored 1.78 × 10⁸ t of carbon, retained 2.98 × 10⁸ t of soil, produced 6.48 × 10⁹ m³ of water yield, maintained a mean habitat quality of 0.78, and supported a forest stock volume of 1.20 × 10⁸ m³. Coniferous forests exhibited the highest CS (181.07 t ha^-1) and FSV (176.37 m³ ha^-1), whereas shrublands contributed the largest share (52.17%) of regional water yield. At the regional scale, CS and FSV showed the strongest synergy (r = 0.71, p < 0.01), while WY displayed significant trade-offs with most other services. GeoDetector analysis revealed that forest type acts as the primary driver shaping the relationships among services, while elevation and precipitation play supporting roles. Based on the ES bundles identified via spatially constrained K-means clustering, the Upper Minjiang River Basin was divided into four distinct management zones: a carbon sequestration core zone, an ecological balance zone, an ecologically fragile zone, and a multifunctional conservation zone. Therefore, findings from the Upper Minjiang River Basin may provide insights applicable to other mountain forest ecosystems facing similar environmental and management challenges.