From classical practices to precision agriculture: a multidisciplinary review of tea (Camellia sinensis)

Tea (Camellia sinensis) is one of the most widely consumed beverages worldwide and a crop of enduring cultural, economic, and scientific significance. Although many studies has examined cultivation and trade, no previous review has integrated tea's long-term domestication history with recent advances in precision agriculture and digital technologies. This review addresses that gap by providing a multidisciplinary synthesis that links the historical, biological, agroecological, and technological dimensions of tea production. This review demonstrates that tea productivity and quality are strongly influenced by interactions among genotype, environment, and management practices, while climate variability increasingly disrupts these relationships. At the same time, precision agriculture technologies offer substantial potential to improve disease detection, optimise resource use, and support data-driven decision-making. However, their adoption remains uneven because of high implementation costs, limited accessibility for smallholder farming systems, and challenges related to data infrastructure. Based on this synthesis, we propose that future research and policy should prioritise: (i) the region-specific integration of digital technologies with traditional cultivation practices; (ii) the development of low-cost, scalable technologies suitable for smallholders; and (iii) climate-resilient cultivation strategies adapted to shifting agroecological conditions. These targeted interventions are essential for improving productivity, sustainability, and resilience across the global tea industry.