Analysis of biological systems using bioimpedance spectroscopy: a critical review of technological convergence and...

Bioimpedance spectroscopy (BIS) has emerged as a versatile, non-invasive technique for real-time electrical characterization of biological systems. By applying alternating current and analyzing the resulting complex impedance, BIS provides insights into cellular structure, tissue properties, and physiological processes, and can also detect pathogenic bacteria. This article presents a scoping review of recent advances in BIS, conducted under the Arksey and O'Malley framework and PRISMA-ScR guidelines, and analyzes 46 studies published between 2015 and 2025 that address BIS applications across biological systems. The strongest evidence was identified in fluid management and hydration monitoring (39.1%), body composition assessment (17.4%), and lymphedema monitoring (15.2%), whereas applications in tissue characterization, cellular systems, agriculture, machine learning-assisted diagnostics, and biosensing technologies remain at lower levels of translational maturity. Recent advances in instrumentation, sensor design, microfluidics, wearable systems, and computational analysis are critically examined. The review identifies major technological barriers, including a lack of standardized acquisition protocols, device-dependent variability, limited interoperability, heterogeneous modeling approaches, and insufficient multicenter validation. Despite challenges related to standardization, modeling of heterogeneous systems, and measurement reproducibility, BIS continues to demonstrate potential across biomedical, biotechnological, and industrial applications. Its ability to provide continuous, real-time, and non-destructive measurements supports its growing use in diagnostic platforms, therapeutic monitoring, and industrial biosensing applications. This review provides an integrated perspective on current developments, limitations, and future directions of BIS-based technologies.