NSAIDs in the environment: a 2020-2025 review of impacts on plant and algal Physiology

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) belong to the most frequently detected pharmaceutical pollutants in aquatic ecosystems, raising growing concern about their effects on non-target primary producers. Unlike earlier reviews, based mainly on data collected before the year 2020, when environmental exposure levels were substantially lower, this work synthesizes research conducted over the last five years (2020-2025), a period that includes the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. The pandemic was associated with a sharp global increase in the consumption of NSAIDs, resulting in their markedly elevated environmental loads. Consequently, the studies assessed in this review reflect plant and algal responses under significantly higher contamination pressures than those reported in pre-pandemic decades, offering a new perspective on their phytotoxic potential. A systematic literature search retrieved over 5,000 records, from which the most relevant experimental studies were selected for detailed evaluation. The compiled evidence demonstrates that NSAIDs adversely affect photosynthesis, induce ultrastructural damage to chloroplasts, and compromise mitochondrial respiration, including alterations in membrane potential and ATP production. Exposure to NSAIDs triggers oxidative stress responses, characterized by reactive oxygen species overproduction, lipid peroxidation, and variable changes in antioxidant enzyme activity. Beyond primary metabolism, numerous reports document disruptions in growth patterns, root system architecture, mineral balance, and secondary metabolite biosynthesis. By integrating the most up-to-date findings from a period of exceptionally intense pharmaceutical pollution, this review provides a novel and more realistic assessment of the ecological risks posed by NSAIDs. It underscores the urgency of developing stricter environmental quality standards and highlights key directions for future research under contemporary contamination scenarios.