Phytoacoustics: sound perception, mechanosensing, and biological responses to sound in plants

Sound and vibration are emerging as biologically relevant mechanical inputs in plant systems. Plants are exposed to complex soundscapes generated by herbivores, pollinators, abiotic forces, and anthropogenic noise, and growing evidence shows that such stimuli can alter defense, pollination-related traits, drought tolerance, ripening, germination, growth and metabolite accumulation. In this review, we synthesize current knowledge on how plants perceive and respond to sound-related mechanical stimuli across ecological, physiological, and molecular scales. We focus on the strongest mechanistic candidates, including plasma membrane deformation, mechanosensitive ion channels, calcium influx, reactive oxygen species signaling, transcriptional reprogramming, and phytohormonal shifts. The available evidence indicates that plant responses to sound are highly context-dependent and shaped by stimulus frequency, intensity, temporal structure, delivery route, species identity, and developmental stage. We also highlight major unresolved questions, particularly concerning the primary sites of perception, the distinction between sound and other forms of mechanostimulation, and the need for stronger methodological standardization. Together, these findings support phytoacoustics as a promising framework for understanding sound as an environmental factor in plants and for developing future applications in stress diagnostics and precision crop management.