[Testicular Germ Cell Tumors and Penile Cancer: Molecular-Based Diagnosis and Treatment]

Molecular diagnostics and targeted therapies are increasingly evolving towards a personalized medicine approach. This review summarizes recent advances in testicular germ cell tumors (TGCTs) and penile cancer, with a focus on emerging biomarkers and targeted therapeutic strategies. Conventional serum tumor markers such as AFP, β-HCG, and LDH remain important but are limited by suboptimal sensitivity and specificity. Novel biomarkers, particularly microRNA miR-371a-3p, have demonstrated substantially higher diagnostic accuracy and may improve risk stratification, detection of disease recurrence, and treatment decision-making in TGCTs. In addition, the analysis of circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) has emerged as a promising liquid biopsy procedure. In penile squamous cell carcinoma, molecular classification based on human papillomavirus (HPV) status and comprehensive genomic profiling are becoming increasingly relevant for prognosis and therapeutic selection. The identification of actionable molecular alterations has facilitated the development of immunotherapy, anti-EGFR strategies, and antibody-drug conjugates. Early clinical data also suggest that ctDNA may provide valuable information for treatment monitoring and early relapse detection. Despite these promising findings, further prospective studies and standardized methodologies are required before many of these approaches can be incorporated into routine clinical practice. Overall, these developments highlight the ongoing transition towards biomarker-driven precision oncology and the potential for more individualized management of patients with TGCTs and penile cancer.