Sustainable mushroom cultivation: a scoping review on circular bioeconomy practices and food system implications

Mushroom cultivation represents a sustainable and circular solution for transforming agricultural and industrial residues into high-value food. This scoping review mapped 46 peer-reviewed studies published between 2015 and 2024 that examined the use of agro-industrial waste and by-products as substrates for mushroom cultivation. Three overarching themes emerged: (i) valorisation of agricultural and industrial waste for substrate formulation, (ii) circular bioeconomy approaches through reuse of spent mushroom substrate (SMS), and (iii) biological efficiency, yield performance, and nutritional or bioactive properties of cultivated mushrooms. The Pleurotus genus dominated the literature, accounting for 72% of all studies, followed by Lentinula edodes and Ganoderma lucidum. Commonly utilised substrates included paddy straw, sugarcane bagasse, oil palm residues, coffee wastes, and anaerobic digestates. Across studies, waste-derived substrates often achieved yield and biological efficiency comparable or superior to conventional sawdust-based substrates, particularly when supplemented or pretreated. Substrate selection also influenced proteins, polysaccharides, and antioxidant contents. Furthermore, several studies demonstrated successful downstream utilisation of SMS as animal feed, compost, or bioenergy feedstock, supporting a circular production model. Overall, this evidence highlights that integrating mushroom cultivation into waste management systems can significantly reduce biomass disposal while contributing to resource recovery and sustainable food production. This review provides a comprehensive synthesis of current evidence to support the development of scalable, low-waste mushroom cultivation systems that align with circular bioeconomy principles.