Global ecotoxicity of nanopesticides: A double-edged sword for sustainable agriculture

The application of nanotechnology in agriculture has emerged as a promising strategy, driven by increased agrochemical efficiency, controlled release, and the use of nanofertilizers and nanosensors that enhance crop productivity and enable real-time monitoring of environmental conditions. However, the release of these nanomaterials into the environment raises concerns about bioaccumulation, environmental persistence, and ecotoxicity to non-target organisms (NTOs). Thus, the current study aimed to review scientific data on the ecotoxicity of nanopesticides. A total of 86 articles from Web of Science, PubMed, ScienceDirect, and SCOPUS were analyzed. Revised data showed that studies were conducted mainly in China, Brazil, the United States, and India, using arthropods, plants, fish, annelids, and soil microbiota as test organisms. Studies focused mainly on polymeric nanocarriers, followed by metal-based NPs, lipid-based systems, and hybrid formulations. Nanopesticides were obtained primarily through chemical synthesis, while only 6.97% employ green synthesis routes. While most studies (71%) reported a reduction in acute lethal toxicity compared to conventional formulations, these findings are highly context-dependent and lack methodological standardization across different exposure conditions and species sensitivities. Nanopesticides can induce oxidative stress, metabolic dysregulation, and bioaccumulation, indicating that lower acute lethality does not equate to environmental safety. The aquatic ecotoxicological impacts remain fundamentally tied to the material architecture, environmental behavior, and specific NTO traits. Overall, the observed variability and the persistence of sublethal disturbances underscore the need for harmonized protocols, long-term research, and robust safer-by-design frameworks to bridge current regulatory gaps.