From clay pots to graphene membranes: the evolutionary journey of water purification media

The quest for clean water is as ancient as civilization itself, evolving from the stochastic pores of clay vessels to the precisely engineered nanochannels of modern two-dimensional (2D) materials. Unlike previous reviews that focus primarily on material synthesis or specific applications, this review uniquely traces the conceptual lineage from ancient purification principles to modern 2D materials, demonstrating how atomic-scale engineering augments rather than replaces historical mechanisms. The survey provides a critical comparative framework that systematically evaluates performance across contaminant classes, identifies key research gaps, and proposes specific targets for practical implementation. This historical-to-horizontal perspective provides researchers with both contextual understanding and practical guidance. The study examines how carbon-based 2D platforms, graphene, graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), and MXenes, have transformed water decontamination from a macroscale filtration art into an atomic-scale separation science. It reveals how these materials refine and augment historical purification mechanisms like size-exclusion sieving progresses from micron-scale randomness to ångström-level precision, adsorption shifts from general electrostatic capture to targeted chemical scavenging, and disinfection advances from leaching biocides to contact-based photothermal and catalytic destruction. Beyond inheriting ancient principles, 2D materials introduce novel functionalities including electrocatalytic degradation, plasmonic disinfection, and tunable ionic selectivity, enabling unprecedented removal of heavy metals, organic pollutants, pathogens, and emerging contaminants. However, despite remarkable laboratory performance, critical challenges in scalability, cost, stability, fouling, and environmental safety persist. This review not only deals with the state of the art but also provides a forward-looking framework for transitioning these advanced materials from bench-scale innovation to sustainable, real-world water treatment solutions.