Emerging insights into developmental programmed cell death in plants

Programmed cell death (PCD) is a fundamental and tightly regulated process that shapes plant development and ensures adaptive responses to environmental stimuli. This review provides an integrative overview of developmental PCD (dPCD) across vegetative and generative stages, from reproductive development and embryogenesis to vascular differentiation, aerenchyma formation, organ shaping, senescence, and abscission. We summarize current knowledge of the molecular, cellular, and physiological mechanisms governing dPCD, highlighting the coordinated roles of transcription factors, caspase-like proteases, reactive oxygen species, calcium signalling or phytohormones. The review further integrates insights from systematic embryology to illustrate how dPCD contributes to the diversity and stability of developmental patterns. Recent advances in omics technologies, single-cell analyses, live-cell imaging, and genome-editing tools are accelerating the identification of novel regulatory pathways and highlighting previously unrecognized layers of PCD control. Understanding developmental PCD is therefore essential not only for revealing the fundamental principles that govern plant growth and tissue patterning but also for enabling targeted manipulation of cell death pathways, with direct implications for crop improvement, stress resilience, and sustainable agriculture.