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Updated: Aug 11, 2026
Eye Tracking Young Children with Autism
Published on: March 27, 2012
Refractive Errors, Amblyopia Risk, and Prenatal Factors in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Cross-Sectional
Mingmei Liu1,2,3, Junjun Wang1,2,3, Liyu Ren1,2,3
1Clinical College of Ophthalmology, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, People's Republic of China.
Insights
Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) have higher rates of refractive errors and amblyopia risk factors (ARFs), influenced by prenatal factors. Many require but do not receive vision correction, highlighting a care gap.
Area of Science:
- Ophthalmology
- Pediatrics
- Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Background:
- Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental condition.
- Ocular health, including refractive errors and amblyopia risk factors (ARFs), is crucial for development.
- Limited research exists on the specific visual profiles of children with ASD.
Purpose of the Study:
- To determine the prevalence of refractive errors and ARFs in children with ASD.
- To investigate the association between prenatal factors and ocular conditions in children with ASD.
- To identify unmet visual care needs in children with ASD.
Main Methods:
- Cross-sectional study of 436 children with ASD and 508 controls (aged 2-9 years).
- Refractive status assessed using Spot Vision Screener; ARFs evaluated per AAPPOS guidelines.
- Prenatal data (delivery mode, maternal weight gain, emotional symptoms) collected via surveys; statistical analysis using SPSS.
Main Results:
- Children with ASD showed higher rates of refractive errors (42.7% vs 36.8%) and ARFs (15.4% vs 8.3%) compared to controls.
- Hyperopia and astigmatism were most common; 90% of children with ASD needing correction had uncorrected refractive errors.
- Cesarean delivery and maternal emotional symptoms were significantly associated with ASD and ocular issues.
Conclusions:
- Children with ASD have a greater burden of refractive errors and ARFs, influenced by prenatal factors.
- A significant gap exists in vision correction for children with ASD.
- Early detection, intervention, and management of prenatal risks are vital for improving visual and developmental outcomes.
Purpose:
This study aims to investigate the prevalence of ocular features, particularly refractive errors and amblyopia risk factors (ARFs), in children diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Additionally, it seeks to explore their associations with selected prenatal factors.
Methods:
This cross-sectional study included 436 children diagnosed with ASD and 508 typically developing controls, all aged between 2 and 9 years from the Tianjin region. Refractive status was measured using the Spot Vision Screener, while ARFs were determined following the guidelines set by the American Academy of Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. Information on prenatal variables, such as the mode of delivery, maternal weight gain, and self-reported maternal emotional symptoms was gathered via parental surveys. The data were analyzed statistically using SPSS version 27.0.
Results:
The results showed that 42.7% of children with ASD presented refractive errors, a rate notably higher than the 36.8% observed in the control group, with hyperopia and astigmatism being the most prevalent conditions. 15.4% of children with ASD were identified as having ARFs, compared to 8.3% in the control group (P <0.05). Notably, 90% of the children with ASD had refractive errors that required correction but were left uncorrected. Prenatal factors, including cesarean delivery (OR = 2.298, P < 0.05) and self-reported maternal emotional symptoms (OR = 5.150, P < 0.05), were found to be significantly associated with both ASD and the presence of refractive errors and amblyopia in this cross-sectional analysis.
Conclusion:
Children with ASD exhibit a higher incidence of refractive errors and ARFs, with prenatal influences playing a significant role. Additionally, the high rate of uncorrected refractive errors in this population highlights a critical gap in visual care. Early diagnosis and treatment, along with targeted management of prenatal risk factors, are critical for improving both visual health and overall developmental outcomes in this group.
Trial Registration:
Registration number: ClinicalTrials.gov ID NCT06122519. Registration date: October 2023.
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