3D Printing of Vascular Grafts: From Technology Development to Performance Optimization

Cardiovascular diseases are the leading global cause of mortality, with rising needs for vascular grafts. As 3D printing becomes increasingly integrated into tissue engineering, research and development aimed at producing 3D-printed vascular grafts has seen a marked increase. Preparing vascular grafts with high requirements ensures that they possess the necessary mechanical properties and biological properties for successful implantation, which is a crucial indicator of quality and clinical applicability in 3D-printed vascular grafts. In addition, rapid endothelialization, antithrombotic properties, tissue regeneration, and reconstruction following long-term implantation of vascular grafts remain critical challenges. 3D printing has emerged as a revolutionary approach that facilitates the development of vascular grafts by addressing key challenges such as mechanical mismatch, thrombosis, and delayed endothelialization, as well as by customizing the fabrication of vascular grafts by combining diverse techniques, such as electrospinning, to provide a promising approach to manufacturing vascular grafts. This review introduces various 3D printing technologies and critically summarizes the various ink components currently used for 3D-printed vascular grafts. Furthermore, the multidimensional effect evaluation and platform research of 3D-printed vascular grafts are briefly introduced, as well as the application of 4D-printed vascular grafts. This review also provides a detailed discussion of the current challenges and progress of 3D-printed vascular grafts. By optimizing the ink components and manufacturing techniques, we will be able to achieve personalized, functional, and clinically applicable vascular grafts in the future.