Acute Effects and Safety of Caffeine Ingestion in Adolescent Athletes: A Systematic Review and Three-Level...

Background and Objectives: Evidence on the acute ergogenic effects of caffeine in adolescent athletes remains limited. This systematic review quantified acute performance-related effects and summarised adverse-event reporting in this population. Methods: PubMed and Web of Science were searched from inception to 13 May 2026 and SPORTDiscus was additionally searched from inception to 15 July 2026 for placebo-controlled studies of acute, dose-defined caffeine ingestion in adolescent athletes aged 10-19 years. Paired Hedges' g values were synthesised separately across six outcome domains using three-level random-effects models with CR2 cluster-robust inference. Risk of bias and certainty of evidence were assessed using RoB 2 and GRADE. Safety findings were summarised narratively. Results: Thirty-five studies were included, of which 32, representing a total of 726 participants, contributed 363 effect sizes. In the primary analysis, which excluded a priori a small number of extreme combat-sport count-test effects arising from implausibly small reported standard deviations (Hedges' g > 3.0), caffeine produced a small favourable average effect on physical performance (g = 0.33, 95% CI 0.17 to 0.49). When all effect sizes were included in a sensitivity analysis, the estimate was larger but inflated by these extreme values (g = 0.43, 95% CI 0.20 to 0.67) and was accompanied by substantial heterogeneity (I² = 84%), a prediction interval crossing the null (-0.71 to 1.58), and significant small-study asymmetry. Pooled effects were not statistically significant for sport-specific performance, perceptual response, or physiology. Cognitive findings were based on only two study clusters and were highly uncertain, while psychological outcomes were summarised narratively because the evidence was too sparse and heterogeneous for a meaningful pooled estimate. Exploratory moderator analyses did not provide reliable evidence that effects differed by caffeine dose or ingestion timing. No serious adverse events were reported, but adverse-event assessment was inconsistent. Conclusions: Acute caffeine ingestion may produce a small and uncertain benefit for selected physical-performance tasks in adolescent athletes. Adverse-event reporting was inconsistent, and current evidence is insufficient to support routine caffeine use in youth sport. These findings are specific to acute caffeine exposure under controlled experimental conditions in adolescent athletes and should not be extrapolated to children, non-athlete adolescents, repeated or chronic caffeine use, or energy-drink consumption.