Nanotechnology advances in biomass-derived green nanomaterials for mitigating environmental toxicity

Environmental pollution from pesticides, synthetic dyes, heavy metals and micro-plastics has become a serious global concern due to their persistence, toxicity and ability to accumulate in living systems. Traditional methods for removing these contaminants are often energy-intensive and costly and may generate secondary pollution, underscoring the need for more sustainable solutions. In this context, green nanotechnology has emerged as a promising and environmentally friendly alternative. This review focuses on recent developments in biomass-derived nanomaterials for pollutant removal, emphasizing the use of renewable resources, including plant materials, microorganisms and agricultural waste. It discusses various green synthesis approaches, including biological and low-energy methods and explains how these materials interact with pollutants via mechanisms such as adsorption, catalytic degradation and redox reactions. Their applications in water purification, soil remediation and air pollution control are also explored. This review also brings together recent progress in biomass‑derived nanomaterials and highlights their pollutant‑specific performance, including heavy‑metal removal efficiencies exceeding 95%, dye degradation rates of 90-98% and pesticide adsorption of up to 85% under optimized conditions. We also compare how different biomass precursors and hybrid green nanomaterials shape reactivity, stability and scalability, while offering a critical assessment of their toxicity profiles and life‑cycle limitations. In addition, the review considers important aspects such as environmental safety, long-term sustainability and the role of these technologies in supporting a circular bioeconomy through waste valorisation. Finally, current challenges and future research directions are outlined, with a focus on developing scalable, cost-effective and safe nanomaterials for real-world environmental applications.