Structural basis for target discrimination and activation by Cas13d

CRISPR-Cas13d is increasingly used for RNA knockdowns, but off-target cleavage of near-cognate RNAs hinders its broader adoption. Here, we solve seven cryo-electron microscopy structures of wild-type Cas13d in complex with matched and mismatched targets. These structures reveal active, intermediate, and inactive states that illustrate a detailed activation mechanism. Upon target RNA binding, the CRISPR RNA undergoes marked conformational changes. The Helical-1 domain transitions from a docked state with the amino-terminal domain to an allosterically switched conformation that stabilizes the RNA duplex. Quantitative kinetics show that a single proximal mismatch preserves the binding rate constant but abolishes nuclease activity by trapping Cas13d in an inactive state. We also identify an active site loop in the higher eukaryotes and prokaryotes nucleotide-binding (HEPN) domains that regulates substrate accessibility and can be mutated to generate both hypo- and hyperactivated variants. These findings establish the structural basis for Cas13d mismatch surveillance and provide a framework for engineering HEPN nuclease specificity and activity.