Mitochondrial dysfunction in neurodegenerative diseases: Mechanisms and therapeutic advances

Neurodegenerative diseases associated with ageing are characterized by progressive neuronal dysfunction and loss, yet effective disease-modifying therapies remain elusive. Increasing evidence indicates that mitochondrial dysfunction is not merely a downstream consequence of neurodegeneration but represents an early and active driver of disease initiation and progression. This review addresses this critical gap by establishing an integrated framework that systematically connects mechanistic insights with translational applications. We demonstrate that mitochondrial impairment precedes classical neuropathological hallmarks, thereby positioning mitochondrial dysfunction as a primary driver rather than a secondary consequence of neurodegeneration. Through comprehensive analysis of disease-specific molecular signatures, we reveal how distinct mitochondrial regulatory failures converge on common downstream pathways: bioenergetic collapse through respiratory chain complex deficiencies, oxidative stress amplification via mitochondrial DNA damage and reactive oxygen species overproduction, calcium dysregulation, and compromised quality control through impaired mitophagy. Critically, we integrate emerging evidence demonstrating bidirectional crosstalk between mitochondrial dysfunction and neuroinflammation, establishing a self-perpetuating pathogenic loop that accelerates disease progression. By synthesizing advances in multi-omics profiling, single-cell resolution analyses, and in vivo imaging biomarkers, we provide a systems-level perspective that transcends reductionist single-pathway models. Furthermore, we critically evaluate the translational landscape of mitochondria-targeted interventions, encompassing pharmacological agents with defined molecular targets, gene therapy approaches addressing mitochondrial DNA mutations, and lifestyle modifications promoting systemic metabolic resilience. Our comparative analysis reveals complementary mechanistic profiles and practical limitations across these modalities, supporting an integrated therapeutic paradigm that combines broad metabolic optimization with precision targeting of specific mitochondrial defects.