Forensic ethology: An operational model to enhance forensic pathologists' knowledge in animal attacks

Animal attacks are a significant and increasingly frequent forensic problem, yet forensic pathological research remains largely confined to the description of individual bite marks and wounds. This narrative review, conducted according to a structured and reproducible methodology informed by the principles of the PRISMA framework, aims to (i) synthesise species-specific lesion patterns and the underlying ethology of the domestic and wild animals most frequently implicated in human attacks, and (ii) propose a structured, probabilistic operational model to support forensic practitioners in the investigation of fatal and non-fatal animal-related injuries. A literature search of PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science (search terms "animal bite," "animal attack," "forensic pathology," "bite mark analysis," "animal behavior") yielded 286 records, of which 43 were retained after screening for relevance to forensic pathology, focusing on canids, suids, equids, and bears. Dogs account for the majority of reported attacks worldwide, whereas wild boars, pigs, equids, and bears are less frequent but increasingly implicated in urban and peri-urban settings. Lesion patterns vary consistently by species, victim age, and circumstances, and are summarised comparatively to support differential attribution. The novelty of the work lies in reframing the interpretative process as a structured diagnostic tool with defined inputs (scene assessment, external examination, autopsy, histology, and genetic/microbiological analysis), explicit decision pathways, and probabilistic outputs, emphasising that species attribution rests on the convergence of multiple independent lines of evidence rather than on any single deterministic finding. Beyond individual casework, the model is positioned as a potential component of a broader surveillance and risk-assessment system: the current absence of centralised, standardised data-collection frameworks and behavioural risk registries limits both forensic validation and public-health prevention. Integrating species-specific ethology and lesion analysis from the scene to the post-mortem examination can improve the accuracy and reproducibility of medico-legal investigations and support evidence collection, prevention, and legal decision-making within a One Health perspective.