Laser-engineered electrocatalysts for CO₂ and CO reduction: from surface modification to non-equilibrium catalyst...

Laser processing has emerged as a versatile approach for engineering electrocatalyst surfaces and interfaces with exceptional spatial and temporal precision. Unlike conventional synthesis routes that largely access equilibrium structures, laser irradiation can generate non-equilibrium phases, defect-rich microstructures, and dynamically engineered interfaces through localized energy delivery and ultrafast quenching. These capabilities offer new opportunities for tailoring catalytic activity and selectivity in electrochemical CO₂ and CO reduction. This review summarizes recent advances in laser-engineered electrocatalysts, with emphasis on the fundamental principles of laser-matter interactions and fabrication strategies including pulsed laser deposition, direct laser writing, and pulsed laser ablation in liquids. We discuss how laser parameters govern surface restructuring, oxidation-state modulation, defect formation, and interfacial engineering, enabling the creation of structured electrodes, oxide-metal interfaces, and surfactant-free nanomaterials. Representative catalyst systems are highlighted to illustrate the impact of laser-induced modifications on catalytic performance and reaction pathways. Although the application of laser processing in CO₂ and CO electrocatalysis remains relatively underexplored, its ability to simultaneously control morphology, composition, and electronic structure positions it as a promising platform for next-generation catalyst design. Finally, current challenges and future opportunities are discussed, including mechanistic understanding, operando characterization, parameter standardization, and scalable manufacturing. We anticipate that laser processing will evolve beyond a surface-modification tool toward a versatile platform for non-equilibrium electrocatalyst design and sustainable energy-conversion technologies.