Teachers' self-efficacy and its relationship to inclusive education for students with autism: a cross-sectional study

Inclusive education is increasingly recognized as an important approach to promoting equitable learning opportunities for all students, including students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Teachers' self-efficacy, or their perceived capability to manage classrooms, adapt instruction, and support diverse learners, is considered an important factor in autism inclusion. However, limited research in Saudi Arabia has examined teachers' self-efficacy in relation to self-reported inclusive education orientations toward students with ASD.

This study aimed to assess teachers' self-efficacy and self-reported inclusive education orientations toward students with ASD in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. It also examined whether selected demographic and professional characteristics were associated with self-efficacy and inclusive education orientations.

A cross-sectional correlational design was used. A convenience sample of 381 general and special education teachers from mainstream schools in Riyadh participated in the study. Data were collected using a structured, self-administered questionnaire covering demographic and professional characteristics, teachers' self-efficacy, and inclusive education orientations toward students with ASD. Descriptive statistics, independent-samples t-tests, one-way ANOVA, Pearson's correlation, and multiple linear regression were conducted using SPSS version 27.

Teachers reported moderately high levels of self-efficacy (M = 3.84, SD = 0.62) and generally positive inclusive education orientations (M = 3.88, SD = 0.59). A strong positive correlation was found between self-efficacy and inclusive education orientations (r =0.62, p < 0.001). In the regression model, self-efficacy showed the strongest association with inclusive education orientations (β =0.48, p < 0.001). Prior training on inclusion, longer teaching experience, special education teaching role, and prior experience teaching students with ASD were also significantly associated with more positive inclusive education orientations.

The findings indicate that teachers' self-efficacy is closely associated with self-reported inclusive education orientations toward students with ASD among the participating teachers. They also suggest that targeted training, teaching experience, teaching role, and autism-specific exposure may be relevant factors in supporting inclusive education. Because of the cross-sectional design, convenience sampling, and reliance on self-report data, the findings should be interpreted as evidence of association rather than causation, population-level generalizability, or direct evidence of observed classroom practice.