Development and validation of the digital competence framework and scale for pre-service physical education teachers

General teacher Digital Competence (DC) frameworks, which lack a subject-specific pedagogical perspective, are limited in their ability to effectively guide technology integration practices in physical education contexts. Using an exploratory sequential mixed-methods design, this study developed and validated a subject-specific framework and measurement instrument for the DC of Pre-service Physical Education Teachers (PSPETs). The results showed that the PSPETs' DC framework comprises Digital Resources for Physical Education Teaching, Integration and Implementation in Physical Education Teaching, Assessment and Feedback in Physical Education Teaching, Digital Ethics and Safety in Physical Education Teaching, Professional Activities, Fostering Students' Use of Digital Technology for Health Maintenance, and Personality Traits in Digital Technology Application. Based on this framework, a measurement instrument was developed and evaluated through item analysis and cross-validation using 1,437 valid questionnaires. The results confirmed the instrument's satisfactory reliability and validity, as well as the good fit of its seven-factor structural model. Further survey results based on 3,128 PSPETs indicated that institutional tier, GPA Ranking, academic year, and city tier were positively associated with DC, whereas first-generation college student status and low-income family status were negatively associated with DC. By incorporating a subject-specific perspective, this study contributes a domain-specific framework that integrates technology integration with subject-based educational objectives. It also provides a reference for the design of Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) curricula, the diagnosis of DC, and differentiated professional development.