Cognitive decision-making in police use of force: a scoping review based on eye-tracking research

This scoping review aimed to systematically map and synthesize the existing eye-tracking literature on cognitive decision-making in police use of force. Specifically, it integrated evidence across five key domains: eye-tracking metric frameworks, decision-making paradigms, expert-novice differences, stress-related influences, and training interventions. The findings contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the cognitive mechanisms underlying police use-of-force decision-making and provide empirical support for the optimization of police training systems.

Following the PRISMA-ScR guidelines, a systematic search was conducted across four databases, including PubMed. Of 103 identified records, 15 studies were included after duplicate removal, title and abstract screening, and full-text assessment. Data on publication characteristics, study designs, participant characteristics, eye-tracking metrics, research themes, and key findings were extracted and descriptively synthesized to map the current evidence landscape and characterize the existing body of research.

The included studies revealed that eye-tracking metrics in police use-of-force decision-making have evolved from single fixation-based measures to multidimensional frameworks incorporating fixation allocation, saccadic dynamics, visual states, and physiological-eye movement coupling. Existing decision-making paradigms highlight the importance of accurate attention allocation to threat-relevant cues and the avoidance of expectation-driven "shooting before seeing" responses. Expert-novice studies suggest that tactical training experience, rather than occupational tenure alone, contributes to more efficient gaze strategies under stress. Stress may impair decision-making by increasing threat expectancy and reducing fixation stability, whereas training interventions targeting deliberate practice and tactical gaze control improve gaze efficiency and response speed, with limited effects on decision accuracy among experienced officers.

Eye-tracking research on police use-of-force decision-making has progressed from descriptive observation to mechanism-based explanation and intervention validation. Future research should integrate cognitive reappraisal and attentional regulation into a unified training framework, translating laboratory findings into scalable police training practices to reduce decision-making errors through evidence-based approaches.