Mitochondria as a therapeutic platform in inflammatory and degenerative disorders: mechanisms, biomarkers, and...

Mitochondrial dysfunction has emerged as a convergent pathogenic mechanism across inflammatory and degenerative disorders, functioning not as a passive consequence but as an active amplifier of tissue injury, immune dysregulation, and impaired repair. Consistently observed mitochondrial abnormalities include excessive reactive oxygen species production, impaired oxidative phosphorylation, defective mitophagy, altered fission-fusion dynamics, and release of mitochondrial danger-associated molecular patterns, particularly cell-free mitochondrial DNA (cf-mtDNA), which serves both as a proinflammatory mediator and a potential circulating biomarker of disease activity. These alterations create self-reinforcing networks in which mitochondrial stress promotes innate immune activation, sustains inflammatory signaling, and accelerates structural or functional decline in vulnerable tissues. Mitochondria-targeted pharmacology has expanded rapidly, encompassing organelle-directed antioxidants, modulators of mitochondrial quality control, biogenesis or metabolic enhancers, nano-enabled delivery platforms, and emerging mitochondrial replacement strategies. Despite strong mechanistic appeal and encouraging preclinical data, clinical translation remains limited by the absence of validated pharmacodynamic biomarkers, an incomplete understanding of disease endotypes, inconsistent tissue target engagement, delivery barriers to mitochondria-rich compartments, and poor predictive value of animal models for human disease biology. The cf-mtDNA and related mitochondrial signatures are increasingly attracting attention for patient stratification, phenotyping, and therapeutic monitoring, although assay standardization remains unresolved. This review focuses on the core mechanisms that link mitochondrial dysfunction to disease progression. It also examines biomarker development and the major barriers to translation. Emerging approaches such as nanotechnology and mitochondrial replacement are discussed as supplementary strategies, not as the main focus of the review.