Mixed evidence that dosage sensitive genes drive global dosage compensation in flour beetles

Heteromorphic sex chromosomes create inherent gene dosage differences between males and females because one sex carries a single copy of the X chromosome while the other carries two. Many species have evolved mechanisms that equalize X-linked gene expression between sexes and, in some cases, restore ancestral autosomal levels, a process known as dosage compensation. Although chromosome-wide compensation is common in male heterogametic (XY) insects, regulatory outcomes vary across taxa and sex chromosome systems, leaving the evolutionary forces shaping sex chromosome regulation unresolved. One hypothesis proposes that the extent to which genes are sensitive to changes in gene dose determines whether complete compensation evolves. We tested predictions of this insensitive sex chromosome hypothesis (ISCH) across five flour beetle species using comparative transcriptomics and genome-wide RNAi-derived measures of gene-by-gene sensitivity. Including an X-autosome fusion in Tribolium confusum, allowed direct assessment of expression evolution following a transition from diploid autosome to a hemizygous Neo-X. Across all five species, we detect complete chromosome-wide dosage compensation and balance between sexes in somatic tissues, including the Neo-X region. Consistent with ISCH predictions, neither the ancestral Shared-X nor the Neo-X is depleted of genes that are sensitive to RNAi-based expression disruption. However, contrary to expectations, at the level of individual genes, we find little evidence that more sensitive genes exhibit reduced expression divergence. These results suggest that chromosome-wide compensation can be maintained by global regulatory mechanisms that persist through sex chromosome turnover, even when gene-by-gene constraints are weak. Understanding the molecular basis of these mechanisms remains a central challenge in sex chromosome evolution.