Developmental relations between math anxiety and arithmetic fluency in elementary school students across six time...

Math anxiety is widely recognized as a barrier to mathematical learning; however, its longitudinal relationship with performance remains a topic of debate. The present study examined developmental relations between math anxiety and arithmetic fluency from Grades 4 to 6 using longitudinal data from 866 students assessed across six measurement points. Traditional cross-lagged panel models suggested reciprocal relations between math anxiety and arithmetic fluency over time. In contrast, random-intercept cross-lagged panel models, which account for stable between-person differences, indicated a unidirectional within-person effect whereby higher than usual math anxiety predicted subsequent declines in arithmetic fluency. Together, these findings complement and add to our understanding of this developmental relationship, suggesting that reciprocal associations primarily reflect between-student differences in relative standing over time, that is, low-performing students being vulnerable to developing math anxiety and vice versa. Anxiety-driven processes, however, regardless of performance level, emerge more clearly at the within-student level. Overall, the findings suggest that math anxiety may play a central role in undermining arithmetic performance during upper elementary school, highlighting the importance of addressing anxiety early to support students' mathematical development. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).