Advances in deer antler research based on single-cell multi-omics approaches

Deer antlers are the only mammalian appendages capable of complete periodic regeneration and exceptionally rapid growth, providing a unique model for studying organ regeneration, tissue growth, and regenerative medicine. Recent advances in single-cell and spatial multi-omics technologies have substantially advanced our understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying antler full regeneration and rapid growth. In this review, we summarize these advances by integrating transcriptomic, epigenomic, and spatial profiling approaches, with a focus on the identification of antler stem/progenitor cell populations, regulatory programs, osteochondral differentiation trajectories, and vascular remodeling that support rapid tissue expansion. We further discuss cross-species comparisons. Finally, we outline current challenges and future directions. These advances provide important insights into the mechanisms underlying mammalian appendage regeneration and rapid tissue growth, offering potential strategies for regenerative medicine and tissue engineering.