Bio-inspired adaptive nanoparticles: from adaptive regulation to cancer drug delivery and therapy

Living systems, including cells and viruses, exhibit intrinsic adaptivity that enables them to navigate complex biological environments through dynamic regulation of their structural and functional states. Inspired by these natural processes, bio-inspired adaptive nanoparticles have emerged as a promising strategy to overcome the limitations of static nanocarriers. These engineered systems sense or recognize changes in the local microenvironment and subsequently undergo spatiotemporal remodeling of their structures, biointerfaces, or biological functions, thereby meeting stage-specific requirements for cancer delivery and therapy. In this Review, we summarize recent advances in bio-inspired adaptive nanoparticles for cancer applications. We first outline representative natural adaptive particles and their underlying adaptive mechanisms. We then discuss how these principles guide the design of structurally and functionally adaptive nanoparticles to overcome tumor-delivery barriers and regulate the tumor microenvironment. Finally, we highlight approaches for the mechanistic and quantitative validation of adaptive behavior and discuss the major challenges and future directions for developing next-generation adaptive nanomedicines with translational potential.