Particle-by-Particle Biomolecular Coronas: Insights into Single-Particle Analysis of Fluorescent Labeling

Controlling particle-level heterogeneity arising from postformation modification of biomolecular coronas remains a central challenge in bionano interaction studies. Variability in corona modifications can alter the biological identity of individual nanoparticles (NPs), compromising the accuracy, reproducibility, and interpretability of both in vivo and in vitro experiments. Despite its significant impact, particle-level uniformity is rarely measured directly. This issue is particularly critical for corona fluorescent labeling, where bulk fluorescence readouts can suggest efficient modification while masking substantial heterogeneity among individual particles. Here, we present a particle-resolved framework for optimizing fluorescent labeling of biomolecular coronas. Using a controlled core-shell superparamagnetic iron oxide NP (SPION) platform, we labeled corona-associated proteins with Alexa Fluor 405 NHS ester while systematically varying critical reaction parameters, i.e., interparticle distance, dye-to-NP molar ratio, and mixing conditions. High-sensitivity nanoscale flow cytometry revealed that corona labeling is not simply an ensemble chemical reaction, but a heterogeneity-generating process shaped by local reaction environments and intrinsic NP structural variability. Conditions that appeared comparable by bulk fluorescence produced distinct particle-level distributions. We further show that the same design logic is applicable to structurally distinct biogenic NPs, milk extracellular vesicles (MEVs), and Alexa Fluor 647 as an additional dye molecular scaffold. Overall, this work underscores the need to shift from ensemble-averaged to single-particle characterization in biomolecular corona research and establishes transferable design principles for reliable optimization of corona labeling across diverse NP systems, while recognizing that system- and dye-specific refinement remains necessary.