Role and Function of the Opercula

The frontal, temporal, and parietal opercula are usually described through the lens of classical language localization. Yet, evidence from direct electrical stimulation, connectomics, tractography and microdissection, and functional meta-analysis indicates that these cortices are better understood as an interactive perisylvian system linking effectors, integrative relays, associative hubs, and elaborative territories. In this review, we synthesize the functional anatomy of the frontal, temporal, and parietal opercula, together with the auditory cortex, superior temporal gyrus, temporal pole, ventral premotor cortex, precentral and postcentral gyri, supramarginal gyrus, angular gyrus, and related perisylvian territories. We emphasize how cortical function emerges from the interaction between dorsal sensorimotor-phonologic systems, ventral semantic-identification systems, auditory-temporal systems, and temporo-parietal integrative systems. We further review the crucial contribution of short U-fibers and long association pathways, especially the arcuate fasciculus/superior longitudinal fasciculus complex, inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus, uncinate fasciculus, inferior longitudinal fasciculus, and acoustic radiation. Finally, we discuss how this network-based framework refines resection planning, intraoperative testing, and functional risk prediction in epilepsy surgery and glioma surgery. The central message is that the opercular region should not be approached as a set of isolated gyri, but as a hierarchy of interacting hubs and exits whose preservation determines postoperative language, auditory, praxis, and socio-semantic outcomes.