Itaconate and its derivatives in human health and diseases

Metabolic reprogramming forms the foundation of immune effector functions and the regulation of inflammation. As a pivotal node connecting the tricarboxylic acid cycle to immune signaling, the IRG1/ACOD1 and itaconate axes play a central role in coordinating inflammatory tone and redox balance. Itaconate, generated through the decarboxylation of cis aconitate, acts as an immunometabolic brake that engages multiple regulatory pathways to sustain the dynamic equilibrium between inflammation and tissue homeostasis. Across a broad spectrum of pathological conditions, including infectious diseases, metabolic disorders, ischemia‒reperfusion injury, neurodegenerative diseases, autoimmune disorders, and cancers, itaconate and its derivatives generally exert anti-inflammatory and cytoprotective effects. However, within specific microenvironments, these molecules may also be exploited by pathogens to evade immune clearance or promote immunosuppressive and protumorigenic responses. Future studies should further elucidate tissue- and lineage-specific functions, define bidirectional regulatory mechanisms, and optimize the pharmacokinetic properties of itaconate derivatives. With the advancement of multiomics integration, systems immunology, rational drug design, and engineered itaconate delivery technologies, the IRG1/ACOD1-itaconate axis and derivative-based therapeutic strategies are poised to emerge as key metabolic checkpoints and therapeutic targets in inflammatory-, metabolic-, immune-, and cancer-related diseases.