Harnessing chitosan-based biomaterials for advanced cancer immunotherapy: from nanocarriers to tumor microenvironment...

Cancer immunotherapy has transformed oncology, however, its clinical efficacy remains limited by immunosuppressive tumor microenvironments (TMEs), poor therapeutic delivery, systematic toxicity, treatment resistance. Chitosan, a biocompatible and biodegradable polysaccharide, has emerged as a versatile biomaterial capable of addressing these challenges through both intrinsics immunomodulatory activity and advanced drug-delivery functions. This review summarizs recent advances in chitosan-based biomaterials for cancer immunotherapy, highlighting their ability to activate innate and adaptive immune responses through pathways involving patterns recognition receptors, cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)=simulator of interferon genes (STING) signaling, dendric cells (DCs)macrophages, natural killer (NK) cells and T lymphocytes. The design and application of chitosan-based nanoparticles and hydrogels as platformsfor delivering cytokines, nucleic acids, immune adjuvant, cancer vaccines and immune checkpoint therapeutics are discussed. Particular attention is given to their roles in TME remodeling, sustained local drug release, postsurgical immunotherapy, and combination approaches that integrate chemotherapy, radiotherapy (RT), phototherapy and immunotherapy. Emerging strategies, including stimuli-responsive systems, biomimetic formulations, and multifunctional nanoplatforms are also discussed. Finally, we discuss the current translational current translational challenges and future perspectives, emphasizing the potential of chitosan-based biomaterials to enhance antitumor immunity and improve clinical outcomes in cancer immunotherapy.