The novel trends and sustainable developments of graphene nanostructures for medical applications

Graphene nanoparticles (GNPs) have emerged as transformative nanostructures in biomedical science due to their unique physicochemical properties, including high surface area, exceptional mechanical strength, tunable conductivity, and versatile surface chemistry. Their multifunctional characteristics render them promising for applications in drug delivery, biosensing, tissue engineering, neural interfaces, and antimicrobial therapies. This review highlights recent advances in graphene-based nanostructures for medical applications, with a particular focus on sustainable developments and translational challenges. We also emphasise toxicity and biocompatibility considerations, discuss current limitations in clinical translation, and provide future perspectives. This work critically examines the latest sustainable developments in graphene nanostructures for medical use, underscoring the hurdles in clinical translation and outlining future directions for safer and more effective implementation.