Predictive processing in sentence reading: Semantic prediction but not phonological facilitation in deaf readers

This study investigated whether deaf readers of English predict semantic and phonological information during sentence reading in the same way as hearing readers. Using a self-paced moving-window paradigm, we tested four groups who were matched on reading ability and English vocabulary knowledge: deaf readers without cochlear implants (CIs), deaf readers with CIs, hearing native readers of English (HN), and hearing non-native readers of English (HNN). Participants read sentences ending in one of five target types: congruent highly predictable words, congruent less predictable words, incongruent words, pseudohomophones of the highly expected word, or orthographic-control pseudowords. Semantic prediction was assessed by comparing reading times for congruent endings in high- and low-cloze contexts, and semantic congruency was assessed by comparing congruent and incongruent endings. Phonological contextual facilitation was assessed by comparing pseudohomophones with orthographic controls. All groups showed sensitivity to semantic incongruence, although Deaf-CI readers showed weaker evidence of semantic prediction, suggesting weaker reliance on predictive mechanisms during reading. In contrast, phonological facilitation was observed only in the HN group, despite the groups being matched on reading ability, suggesting that phonological facilitation during sentence reading may depend on hearing-native-like phonological representations. These findings support the view that skilled reading can be achieved through different routes. While semantic prediction appears to be broadly available across reader groups, phonological facilitation from an expected word form may depend on native-like, automatically engaged spoken-language phonological representations.