Cancer vaccines as targeted therapies: translational advances and challenges

Cancer vaccines represent a promising class of immunotherapeutic agents with potential applications in cancer prevention and treatment. By eliciting tumor-specific immune responses, these vaccines may offer durable protection against tumor progression, recurrence, and metastasis while minimizing off-target toxicity associated with conventional therapies. In addition, activation of adaptive immunity and the induction of immunological memory may contribute to sustained anti-tumor surveillance. Despite these advantages, clinical translation has been limited by immunological complexity, antigen selection, delivery constraints, and tumor-mediated immune evasion. Recent advances in vaccine platforms, including mRNA, peptide-based, and whole-cell vaccines, together with improved delivery systems and immune-modulating strategies, have renewed interest in cancer vaccine development and provided new opportunities to improve efficacy. This review summarizes current progress in cancer vaccine research, discusses major translational challenges, and considers future directions for the development of effective vaccine-based cancer therapies.