To trace or not to trace: analytical insights from network-based contact-tracing models

Contact tracing is one of the most important control measures deployed during epidemics and pandemics, relying on the identification of contacts of known infected individuals. A network perspective is therefore essential for its accurate modelling. Pairwise models have been used extensively to study contact tracing, but their analysis typically depends on a decoupling assumption-most commonly that contact tracing operates on a much faster timescale than disease transmission. Furthermore, contact tracing models often assume that each infected individual becomes a contact tracing-triggering node, which is unrealistic given partial compliance to treatment in practice. In this paper, we relax both of these restrictive assumptions and provide a full analytical characterisation of the epidemic threshold in the pairwise mean-field model. Our analysis uses a fast-variables approach that captures the rapid early stabilisation of key network quantities. In addition, inspired by mechanisms from social adoption dynamics, we introduce triplewise contact tracing in which an infected individual can be traced not only through direct contact with a single tracing-triggering neighbor (pairwise tracing), but also indirectly when connected to two tracing-triggering nodes simultaneously. For pure pairwise and pure triplewise contact tracing, we derive analytical expressions for critical contact tracing thresholds and demonstrate that when many infected individuals bypass treatment, the epidemic can become uncontrollable. When both contact tracing mechanisms operate together, we map out their combined contribution and relative impact on epidemic control. This unified framework yields rigorous and tractable threshold conditions for contact tracing dynamics on networks, extending the applicability of pairwise models beyond the fast-tracing regime and providing new insight into the interplay between disease progression, partial treatment compliance, and higher-order tracing processes.