The psychological pathways to maritime English motivation: need satisfaction, frustration, and learning outcomes

Numerous studies have confirmed the positive effects of Self-Determination Theory (SDT) on educational motivation; however, how its three core psychological needs operate in the high-pressure context of maritime English training remains underexplored. To address this gap, in the present study, we examined the drivers of English-learning motivation among Chinese maritime cadets preparing for Standards of Training, Certification and Watch-keeping for Seafarers (STCW) certification using a non-WEIRD sample.

A sequential explanatory mixed-methods design was utilized. The quantitative phase tested a dual-path SDT model among 304 cadets, with need satisfaction and frustration as parallel mediators between a need-supportive learning environment and learning outcomes, using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The qualitative phase comprised 20 semistructured interviews selected through maximum variation sampling and evaluated using thematic analysis (intercoder reliability: Cohen's κ = 0.84).

Competence satisfaction was the strongest factor for intrinsic motivation (β = 0.266, p = 0.004), whereas autonomy satisfaction did not have a significant effect (β = 0.113, p = 0.160). Need frustration was a steady predictor of controlled motivation, with all three frustration types linked to external regulation. The pathway from a supportive environment, through competence satisfaction and identified regulation, to self-perceived learning outcomes was significant (β = 0.119, p = 0.002). The three qualitative themes-competence seesaw, constrained autonomy, and professional relatedness-showed how certification demands and safety needs contextualize the expression of the three psychological needs in SDT.

These findings show that in vocational settings psychological needs are weighed differently. Autonomy support works best as "guided autonomy" within set rules, and relatedness includes connections to the professional community. The dual-path model explains much of the difference between self-reported learning outcomes (R² = 0.744), illustrating that supportive environments help meet needs and lower frustration. This has important implications for maritime English teachers and policymakers who wish to boost motivation in required certification settings.