Related Experiment Video
Updated: Sep 9, 2026
Non-Invasive Modulation and Robotic Mapping of Motor Cortex in the Developing Brain
Published on: July 1, 2019
Domain-specific motor skill outcomes following a structured play-based motor intervention in preschool children: a
Massimiliano Agnese1, Simone Massaro1, Roberta Cottone1,2
1Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, Department of Psychology, Educational Science and Human Movement, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy.
Background:
Fundamental motor skills (FMS) are key components of early motor competence and part of the physical competence domain of physical literacy. However, less is known about domain-specific effects of structured play-based motor programs in preschool children and whether these effects vary by baseline motor competence and age.
Materials And Methods:
This cluster-randomized controlled trial included 160 children aged 3-6 years from eight preschool classes, with classes randomly allocated to an intervention group (IG; five classes, n = 98) or a control group (CG; three classes, n = 62). The IG received an 8-week structured play-based motor intervention twice weekly, whereas the CG continued usual preschool activities. FMS were assessed pre- and post-intervention using the Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition. Primary outcomes were locomotor raw scores, ball skills raw scores, and the Gross Motor Index (GMI). Primary complete-case analyses included 139 children and used ANCOVA models with post-intervention scores as dependent variables, group and sex as fixed factors, and baseline score and age as covariates. Main effects and interactions were tested using F-tests, with partial eta squared (η 2 p) reported. Mixed-effects models with preschool class as a random intercept and multiple imputation for missing post-intervention data were conducted as sensitivity analyses. The study was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT07624695; https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT07624695).
Results:
Compared with the CG, the IG showed significantly higher post-intervention locomotor scores, ball skills scores, and GMI. Group effects were significant for locomotor skills, F(1,131) = 31.37, p < .001, η 2 p = .193; ball skills, F(1,131) = 94.81, p < .001, η 2 p = .420; and GMI, F(1,131) = 73.24, p < .001, η 2 p = .359. Significant group × baseline score interactions were observed for all outcomes, while group × age interactions were significant for ball skills and GMI. Sensitivity analyses yielded results consistent with the complete-case findings.
Conclusions:
Among preschool children, a structured play-based motor intervention was associated with greater improvements in FMS than usual preschool activities. Findings suggest that intervention effects may vary by motor domain, baseline competence, and age, supporting differentiated and developmentally responsive approaches to early childhood motor skill development.
