The effects of physical and sensory activities on motor and cognitive functions in the aging brain: a review

Brain aging is characterized by progressive structural and functional changes, including atrophy of the hippocampus and frontal cortex, reduced neurogenesis and synaptogenesis, and disruptions in network connectivity, collectively impairing memory, attention, and executive functions. However, aging is increasingly recognized as a heterogeneous process, with variability in decline and preservation of certain cognitive capacities supported by compensatory mechanisms. Neuroplasticity plays a central role in mitigating age-related losses by enabling functional reorganization and maintaining neural connectivity. This integrative review synthesizes evidence on the effects of physical activity, sensory stimulation, and multisystem interventions on brain aging. Aerobic and multicomponent exercise programs, particularly those lasting 8-24 weeks, have been associated with improvements in hippocampal volume, executive function, and mobility. These benefits appear to be mediated by upregulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, vascular endothelial growth factor, lactate signaling, and cathepsin B, which support synaptic plasticity, neurogenesis, and cerebral perfusion. Sensory stimulation enhances neural processing through multisensory integration, strengthening connectivity within attentional and executive networks. Combined interventions that integrate motor, sensory, and cognitive components appear promising and may offer advantages over single‑domain approaches, although direct comparative evidence remains limited. Activities such as dance, proprioceptive training, and musical engagement exemplify sensorimotor integration, promoting cognitive reserve. In addition, emerging technologies, including virtual reality and brain-computer interfaces, further support personalized, neuroplasticity-driven rehabilitation. Together, these findings highlight sensorimotor integration as a central mechanism for preserving cognitive and functional capacity and promoting healthy brain aging.