Advances in the biomonitoring of flame retardants in human matrices

Flame retardants (FRs) represent a class of typical persistent organic pollutants extensively employed in industrial applications, yet they confer significant biological toxicity and pose substantial health risks. The quantitative determination of FRs and their metabolites in human specimens furnishes critical data for evaluating exposure levels and concomitant health risks. The selection of appropriate sample pretreatment and detection methods depends on the specific FR class and the physicochemical characteristics of the biological matrix. This review provides a comprehensive synthesis of contemporary analytical strategies for FR quantification in human matrices, encompassing: (ⅰ) FR classification, (ⅱ) systematic analytical workflows, (ⅲ) matrix-specific sample preparation protocols, (ⅳ) comparative evaluation of instrumental techniques, and (ⅴ) delineation of critical methodological challenges. Emphasis is placed on method performance characteristics, matrix effects, and quality control. The objective is to provide a practical reference framework for developing robust, sensitive, and high-throughput methods for FR biomonitoring.