Sustainable hybrid technologies for diclofenac disposal: from innovation to commercial feasibility

The widespread presence of diclofenac (DCF) in wastewater poses significant environmental and health risks, requiring advanced treatment strategies that go beyond conventional methods. This review explores the innovation, scalability, and commercial feasibility of hybrid wastewater treatment systems for efficient DCF removal, highlighting how different treatment processes can be combined and configured according to wastewater characteristics and treatment objectives. Hybrid approaches integrating adsorption, membrane filtration, advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), and biological treatments have demonstrated superior removal efficiencies, often exceeding 90%, due to their synergistic effects. However, their transition from laboratory-scale success to full-scale implementation remains limited by high energy demands, operational costs, and regulatory compliance challenges. This review provides a critical assessment of process optimization, and sustainable engineering strategies that enhance hybrid system performance. Special emphasis is placed on life cycle assessments (LCA) and industrial benchmarks to evaluate the cost-effectiveness and environmental sustainability of emerging technologies, which provide promising pathways toward energy-efficient and scalable wastewater treatment solutions. Additionally, the integration of circular economy principles, including adsorbent regeneration and resource recovery, presents new opportunities for sustainable wastewater management. By bridging technological advancements with commercial viability, this review highlights the potential of hybrid systems to meet real-world industrial and regulatory requirements. The findings offer valuable insights for researchers, policymakers, and the wastewater treatment industry seeking to implement cost-effective, sustainable, and adaptive hybrid technologies for pharmaceutical contaminant removal.