A Comprehensive Review on the Biosynthesis of Tropane Alkaloids

Tropane alkaloids (TA) constitute a class of plant specialized metabolites with important pharmaceutical applications, including the anticholinergic agents hyoscyamine and scopolamine and the local anesthetic cocaine. Over the past decade, advances in genomics, structural biology, and synthetic biology have substantially revised our understanding of TA biosynthesis, leading to the identification of numerous key biosynthetic enzymes and evolutionary mechanisms. This review comprehensively summarizes current knowledge of TA biosynthesis from precursor formation to structurally diverse end products. We describe the pathway from putrescine to tropinone, the stereoselective metabolic branching mediated by Tropinone Reductases, and the downstream biosynthesis of medicinal tropane alkaloids, calystegines, and cocaine. Particular emphasis is placed on recent discoveries concerning catalytic mechanisms, structural determinants of substrate specificity, metabolic compartmentalization, and the convergent evolution of TA biosynthesis in Solanaceae and Erythroxylaceae. We further integrate advances in genomics, evolutionary biology, and metabolic engineering to highlight emerging strategies for microbial production and pathway redesign. By providing a comprehensive synthesis of recent progress and critical perspectives on unresolved questions, this review offers an updated framework for understanding TA biosynthesis and supports future research in plant specialized metabolism, synthetic biology, and natural product engineering.