Viral mimicry escape as a necessary feature of malignant transformation

Malignant transformation is driven by disruption of pathways regulating proliferation and cell fate, but these same disruptions can create a collateral vulnerability: loss of transcriptional and epigenetic control over transposable elements and other normally silenced genomic regions. Consequently, emerging cancer cells can accumulate transposable element-derived and other endogenous immunogenic nucleic acids capable of triggering antiviral responses, a process termed viral mimicry. Increasing evidence indicates that viral mimicry can eliminate precancerous cells and shape tumour evolution, positioning it as an intrinsic tumour-suppressive mechanism. Here we highlight how cancer-associated changes in DNA methylation, histone modifications, splicing and RNA processing can lead to the presence of immunogenic nucleic acids that can activate viral mimicry pathways. We outline how cancer cells suppress viral mimicry, including compensatory epigenetic repression, RNA editing, nucleic acid decay and dampening of interferon signalling to enable cancer cell growth. Finally, we highlight the evidence suggesting that escaping viral mimicry is a fundamental process for cancer initiation and progression, and suggest that viral mimicry escape is necessary for cancer transformation and a therapeutic target in combination with immunotherapies. By framing viral mimicry escape as a necessary part of cancer transformation, this Review provides a unifying conceptual model for its translational exploitation.