Protamine gene expression is associated with sperm motility in rams: An integrative experimental and gene network...

Protamine 1 (PRM1) and protamine 2 (PRM2) are essential regulators of sperm chromatin condensation and genome integrity, and their dysregulation has been associated with impaired male fertility. However, their role in rams remains insufficiently characterized. This study investigated the relationship between protamine gene expression and semen quality in rams and explored their potential upstream regulatory mechanisms using gene regulatory network (GRN) analysis. Fifteen ejaculates from five rams were analyzed. Based on total sperm motility using computer-assisted sperm analysis (CASA), ejaculates were classified into a high-motility group (n = 8) and a low-motility group (n = 7). PRM1 and PRM2 expression levels were quantified by RT-qPCR. Following normality confirmation (p > 0.05), parametric tests were applied using the ejaculate as the biological experimental unit. Samples with reduced motility showed significantly lower expression of both protamines (p < 0.01). Moreover, progressive sperm motility was strongly correlated with both PRM1 (r = 0.71, p = 0.019) and PRM2 (r = 0.69, p = 0.03) transcript levels. Cross-species GRN inference using scGeneRAI and a reference human spermatogenesis dataset identified several hypothesis-generating candidate transcription factors, including HMGB4, HMGB1, H2AFZ, NKX6-1, and SMC3, consistently supported across multiple bootstrap resampling runs. These findings demonstrate a strong association between protamine expression and sperm motility in rams. While the identified candidate regulators provide a valuable framework for future species-specific validation, they also highlight promising candidate molecular biomarkers of male fertility in livestock.