Effects of traditional versus embodied cognition-based training on physical fitness and lower-limb kinematics

This study aimed to compare the effects of traditional instruction and embodied cognition-based training on physical fitness factors and lower-limb joint kinematic patterns during the execution of a standardized aerobic movement sequence. In this randomized two-group pretest-posttest trial, 63 volunteer female university students aged 18-25 years were randomly assigned to either a traditional training group (n = 31) or an embodied cognition-based training group (n = 32). Two participants from the embodied cognition-based group were unable to attend the post-test assessment and were excluded from the final analyses; therefore, the final sample comprised 61 participants (traditional group: n = 31; embodied cognition-based group: n = 30). Both groups participated in 32 training sessions over 16 weeks. Physical fitness variables included agility, abdominal muscle endurance, trunk extensor endurance, upper-body strength, and overall performance. Lower-limb joint angles, including hip and knee flexion/extension and ankle dorsiflexion/plantarflexion, were extracted using Kinovea software. Results showed that both training approaches produced significant improvements in all physical fitness variables from pre-test to post-test (p ≤ 0.05). However, the embodied cognition-based training group demonstrated significantly greater post-test improvements in trunk extensor endurance, abdominal endurance, upper-body strength, agility, and overall performance (p ≤ 0.05). Similarly, although both methods improved lower-limb movement patterns, the embodied cognition-based group showed significantly more optimal changes in joint range of motion at post-test, including reduced knee flexion and greater hip and ankle range of motion (p ≤ 0.05). The largest between-group difference at post-test was observed in ankle range of motion during Movement 5 (Z = -5.129, p < 0.001). By emphasizing exploratory learning and sensorimotor awareness, this approach may promote more refined neuromuscular organization, more flexible movement strategies, and better movement quality during rhythmic exercise tasks.