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Current status of 3D-printed human ossicles: a systematic review
Elissa Suleiman1,2, Steven Arild Wuyts Andersen3,4,5, Adam Omari3,5,6
1Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N, Denmark.
Background:
Three-dimensional (3D) printed ossicle models may be useful in education and clinical practice, but accurate replication remains challenging.
Aim:
To systematically review 3D-printed ossicles to map replication methods, factors influencing accuracy, and suggest needed innovations for higher accuracy.
Methods:
PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched from inception through June 2025. Two reviewers independently screened for final inclusion. Data on imaging, segmentation, 3D-printing-technology, materials, and post-processing were extracted. Educational studies were appraised using the Medical Education Research Study Quality Instrument. A panel of otosurgeons rated ossicle images for realism and visualization.
Results:
Sixty-five studies were included. Most models embedded ossicles in healthy temporal-bones (n = 46), with fewer pathological (n = 6) or stand-alone models (n = 13). Stapes was often absent or poorly reproduced, whereas malleus and incus were usually recognizable. Higher realism was associated with micro-CT or cone-beam-CT combined with stereolithography or PolyJet-printing. These photopolymer-based technologies allowed ossicle mobility in selected models. However, reporting of replication methods and anatomical accuracy was often limited, constraining deeper comparison between studies.
Conclusions And Significance:
Accurate ossicle replication is emerging but depends on optimization of imaging, processing, and 3D-printing. Standardized reporting is needed to improve comparison between methods and support use in training and reconstruction.
