Human genetics implicates a BACH2-NRF2 axis in fetal haemoglobin activation

Human genetic studies have identified key regulators of fetal haemoglobin (HbF) expression, including BCL11A, resulting in therapeutic advances^1-8. Yet the mechanisms by which HbF expression is activated remain incompletely understood⁹. Here we conduct a large multi-ancestry genome-wide association study of HbF levels in 28,279 individuals that identifies 91 conditionally independent associations across 12 genomic regions. In one previously uncharacterized associated region, the high-HbF-linked causal variant rs1010474-C reduces BACH2 expression and elevates HbF levels. Direct perturbation or inhibition of BACH2 likewise increases HbF expression. Mechanistically, BACH2 restrains activation of the HbF-encoding γ-globin genes, while loss of BACH2 enhances NRF2 chromatin occupancy and promotes the formation of activation foci at the γ-globin genes. Although BACH2 and NRF2 binding motifs in the γ-globin promoters overlap, they can be selectively edited to activate or repress γ-globin, respectively, and do so independently of BCL11A. These findings illustrate how human genetic variation continues to advance our understanding of therapeutically relevant regulatory mechanisms underlying HbF expression.