Physiological mechanisms and adaptation in high-performance shooting: a biomarker review

Precision shooting depends on the coordinated integration of multiple psychophysiological systems. This review summarizes the current literature on quantifiable biomarkers associated with high performance in shooting sports, examining neural, cardiac, oculomotor, muscular, postural, and respiratory activity. Special attention is given to individual variability in postural control and sensorimotor integration as key factors distinguishing expert from novice shooters. Electroencephalographic studies show that experienced shooters exhibit characteristic patterns of cortical activity, including left-hemisphere alpha synchronization reflecting reduced verbal-analytic processing, specific theta rhythm dynamics associated with focused concentration, and increased sensorimotor rhythm power associated with efficient movement preparation. Cardiac activity studies demonstrate that successful shooting is associated with a slower heart rate, a specific shot execution time within the cardiac cycle, and increased heart rate variability reflecting parasympathetic dominance. Oculomotor activity determines the duration of a steady gaze, a critical factor in accuracy, especially under competitive pressure. Electromyographic analysis shows that experts maintain stable, low-level muscle activation compared to novices, who exhibit a progressive increase in tension. Postural balance plays a significant role in weapon stability. Breathing regulation facilitates synchronization with exhalation and an optimal state of the autonomic nervous system. Despite the significant contribution of each parameter to performance, most studies examine individual parameters in isolation. Future research should focus on a multimodal approach that considers intersystem interactions and integrates relevant analytical tools, such as neural networks and explainable artificial intelligence. Training approaches using biofeedback have been shown to accelerate skill acquisition. Therefore, the development of personalized real-time feedback systems that transform raw physiological data into practical recommendations will be essential for optimizing training effectiveness and achieving maximum shooting performance.