Restorative and regenerative therapies for vision loss

Reversing blindness and restoring functional vision remains a central challenge in biomedical engineering. Advances in ocular prosthetics have enabled limited recovery of light perception, motion detection, and coarse object recognition through anterior segment devices such as keratoprostheses and through posterior segment interfaces including retinal, suprachoroidal, optic nerve, and cortical implants. Parallel progress in organ-on-a-chip systems and retinal organoids is providing increasingly sophisticated platforms for disease modelling and therapeutic development. Despite these advances, issues of long-term biocompatibility, signal fidelity, and surgical complexity continue to constrain clinical performance. Emerging approaches that combine stem cell-derived tissues, biofabrication, and hybrid bioelectronic constructs offer promising avenues for next-generation vision restoration, although current production remains limited to early-stage or small-scale systems. Effective integration of these technologies also requires structured vision-rehabilitation strategies to harness neuroplasticity and support functional adaptation. This review synthesises recent progress across prosthetic, rehabilitative, and regenerative domains and outlines key opportunities for future translational development.