Advances in plant electrostimulation: from cellular and molecular mechanisms to agricultural applications

Electrical stimulation is an emerging physical strategy for agricultural regulation that applies electric fields or currents with defined parameters to modulate plant growth, development, and rhizosphere processes. Owing to its residue-free nature, environmental compatibility, and high controllability, electrical stimulation has considerable potential to improve crop yield and quality while enhancing tolerance to abiotic and biotic stresses, making it increasingly relevant to sustainable agriculture. This review critically synthesizes the mechanisms and applications of electrical stimulation across cellular and molecular, physiological and metabolic, whole-plant, and field scales. Particular emphasis is placed on distinguishing continuous or quasi-continuous stimulation from high-voltage pulsed treatments, which differ in membrane-level mechanisms, reversibility, and safety profiles. Three interrelated factors are identified as central to its effectiveness: regulation of membrane potential and ion transport, root-targeted modulation of plant-soil interactions, and context-dependent matching of stimulation parameters with specific biological responses. We further highlight that translating laboratory-scale benefits into reliable field applications will require intelligent delivery systems capable of stable, scalable, energy-efficient, and feedback-controlled operation under variable environmental conditions. Future research should prioritize multiscale investigation of molecular mechanisms, standardized evaluation of stimulation parameters, development of smart and synergistic regulation platforms, and validation across diverse crops, soils, and production systems. These advances will facilitate the practical deployment of electrical stimulation technologies and support their integration into sustainable and precision agriculture.