Designing PEDOT:PSS hydrogels for bioelectronic interfaces

Conductive hydrogels have emerged as promising materials for wearable and implantable bioelectronic interfaces because they combine tissue-like mechanical properties with efficient signal transduction. Among them, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) has attracted significant attention owing to its dual ion-electron conductivity, biocompatibility, and solution processability. However, practical bioelectronic applications require hydrogel electrodes to simultaneously achieve high conductivity, mechanical robustness, strong adhesion, self-healing capability, environmental and physiological stability, biocompatibility, and long-term conformal contact with biological tissues. Despite substantial progress in PEDOT:PSS hydrogels, a comprehensive understanding of how material structure and engineering strategies govern these functional requirements still remains elusive. This review systematically discusses the fundamental requirements for PEDOT:PSS hydrogels to function as high-performance hydrogel electrodes, as well as the corresponding material design strategies with trade-offs. Current challenges and future opportunities, including robust soft-to-rigid interconnections, asymmetric adhesion, transparent biointerfaces, machine learning-assisted systems, and multimodal decoupling strategies, are highlighted. Overall, this review provides a comprehensive design roadmap for developing next-generation PEDOT:PSS hydrogel bioelectronic interfaces.