Assessing mangrove sensitivity to thermal variations through a satellite-based analysis on the southern São Paulo...

Mangroves near subtropical range limits may benefit from fewer cold constraints, yet warmer conditions can also increase atmospheric water demand. These competing possibilities were examined in the Cananéia-Iguape Coastal System, southeastern Brazil, by combining ERA5 2 m air temperature with MODIS normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), enhanced vegetation index (EVI), and leaf area index (LAI). Air-temperature trends were assessed for 1979-2019 with the Mann-Kendall test and Sen's slope. Temperature-vegetation associations were calculated for 2003-2019 from mangrove-wide means and from individual grid cells at annual, monthly, and fixed calendar-quarter scales. Mean annual air temperature increased by about 0.02 °C year⁻¹; the highest quarter-scale rate occurred in July-September (0.03 °C year⁻¹). Annual temperature correlated positively with NDVI (r = 0.61, R² = 0.38, p = 0.009) and EVI (r = 0.55, R² = 0.30, p = 0.022), whereas the LAI relationship was not significant (r = 0.27, R² = 0.07, p = 0.304). The sign of the association changed within the year: NDVI and EVI were negative in July-September, while positive EVI and LAI relationships occurred in October-December. Significant grid-cell relationships occupied limited and discontinuous areas. The temperature record shows regional warming, whereas canopy associations vary among metrics, periods, and locations. Given the bivariate design and coarse ERA5 grid, these associations should not be interpreted as causal or as responses to temperature alone.